Publications

STUDY DESIGN

Randomized controlled trial.

OBJECTIVE

To characterize the increase in gelatinase A (MMP2) activity after spinal cord injury (SCI) in the mouse model, and the effects of MMP2/MMP9 inhibition on apoptotic cells.

SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA

Clinical consequences of SCI are due to a series of secondary injury cascades. Matrix metalloproteinases are thought play a key role in this, leading to apoptotic cell death.

METHODS

SCI via a drop tower in mice was used. MMP2 beta-gal reporter mice were used to quantify the level of MMP2 after SCI. In a follow-up experiment, mice which underwent SCI were randomized to daily SQ injections of MMP2/MMP9 inhibitor versus placebo. MMP2 levels were quantified and histology was performed with TUNEL and Luxol fast blue staining.

RESULTS

MMP2 transcription was significantly upregulated after SCI, by the beta-gal assay. Inhibition of MMP2/MMP9 activity after SCI led to statistically significant decreases in apoptosis within the zone of injury. There was a trend towards preservation of myelin by preserved luxol fast blue staining.

CONCLUSION

After SCI, MMP2 is upregulated along with neuron and glial cells apoptosis. The level of apoptosis could be reduced with MMP2/MMP9 inhibition. This supports MMP2 as cause for apoptosis after SCI with the potential for therapeutic intervention as apoptosis can be reduced with MMP2 inhibition.

OBJECTIVES

Although discussing a prognosis is a duty of physicians caring for critically ill patients, little is known about surrogate decision-makers' beliefs about physicians' ability to prognosticate. We sought to determine: 1) surrogates' beliefs about whether physicians can accurately prognosticate for critically ill patients; and 2) how individuals use prognostic information in their role as surrogate decision-makers.

DESIGN, SETTING, AND PATIENTS

Multicenter study in intensive care units of a public hospital, a tertiary care hospital, and a veterans' hospital. We conducted semistructured interviews with 50 surrogate decision-makers of critically ill patients. We analyzed the interview transcripts using grounded theory methods to inductively develop a framework to describe surrogates' beliefs about physicians' ability to prognosticate. Validation methods included triangulation by multidisciplinary analysis and member checking.

MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS

Overall, 88% (44 of 50) of surrogates expressed doubt about physicians' ability to prognosticate for critically ill patients. Four distinct themes emerged that explained surrogates' doubts about prognostic accuracy: a belief that God could alter the course of the illness, a belief that predicting the future is inherently uncertain, prior experiences where physicians' prognostications were inaccurate, and experiences with prognostication during the patient's intensive care unit stay. Participants also identified several factors that led to belief in physicians' prognostications, such as receiving similar prognostic estimates from multiple physicians and prior experiences with accurate prognostication. Surrogates' doubts about prognostic accuracy did not prevent them from wanting prognostic information. Instead, most surrogate decision-makers view physicians' prognostications as rough estimates that are valuable in informing decisions, but are not determinative. Surrogates identified the act of prognostic disclosure as a key step in preparing emotionally and practically for the possibility that a patient may not survive.

CONCLUSIONS

Although many surrogate decision-makers harbor some doubt about the accuracy of physicians' prognostications, they highly value discussions about prognosis and use the information for multiple purposes.